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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="Fracking" title="Fracking">Fracking</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a> <a href="Drilling_rig" title="Drilling rig">drilling rig</a> near <a href="Alvarado%2C_Texas" title="Alvarado, Texas">Alvarado, Texas</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Fracking_by_country" title="Fracking by country">By country</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Fracking_in_Canada" title="Fracking in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Fracking_in_New_Zealand" title="Fracking in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Fracking_in_South_Africa" title="Fracking in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Fracking_in_Ukraine" title="Fracking in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>

<li><a href="Fracking_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Fracking in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Fracking in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Environmental_impact_of_fracking" title="Environmental impact of fracking">Environmental impact</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_additives_used_for_fracking" title="List of additives used for fracking">Additives</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

<a href="Regulation_of_fracking" title="Regulation of fracking">Regulation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Exemptions_for_fracking_under_United_States_federal_law" title="Exemptions for fracking under United States federal law">U.S. federal law exemptions</a></li></ul></td>

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Technology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul>

<li><a href="Uses_of_radioactivity_in_oil_and_gas_wells" title="Uses of radioactivity in oil and gas wells">Uses of radioactivity</a></li></ul></td>

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Politics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="2012%E2%80%9314_Romanian_protests_against_shale_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="2012–14 Romanian protests against shale gas">2012–14 Romanian protests against shale gas</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-fracking_movement" title="Anti-fracking movement">Anti-fracking movement</a></li>

<li><i><a href="FrackNation" title="FrackNation">FrackNation</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Frack_Off" title="Frack Off">Frack Off</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Gasland" title="Gasland">Gasland</a></i></li></ul></td>

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<p>A <b>proppant</b> is a solid material, typically sand, treated sand or man-made ceramic materials, designed to keep an <a href="Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">induced hydraulic fracture</a> open, during or following a fracturing treatment, most commonly for <a href="Unconventional_(oil_and_gas)_reservoir" title="Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir">unconventional reservoirs</a>. It is added to a <i>fracking fluid</i> which may vary in composition depending on the type of fracturing used, and can be <a href="Gel" title="Gel">gel</a>, <a href="Foam" title="Foam">foam</a> or <a href="Slickwater" title="Slickwater">slickwater</a>-based. In addition, there may be unconventional fracking fluids. Fluids make tradeoffs in such material properties as <a href="Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>, where more viscous fluids can carry more concentrated proppant; the energy or pressure demands to maintain a certain flux pump rate (<a href="Flow_velocity" title="Flow velocity">flow velocity</a>) that will conduct the proppant appropriately; <a href="PH" title="PH">pH</a>, various <a href="Rheology" title="Rheology">rheological factors</a>, among others. In addition, fluids may be used in low-volume well stimulation of high-permeability <a href="Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> wells (20 to 80 thousand US gallons (76 to 303 kl) per well) to the high-volume operations such as <a href="Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">shale gas</a> and <a href="Tight_gas" title="Tight gas">tight gas</a> that use millions of gallons of water per well.

</p><p>Conventional wisdom has often vacillated about the relative superiority of gel, foam and slickwater fluids with respect to each other, which is in turn related to proppant choice. For example, Zuber, Kuskraa and Sawyer (1988) found that gel-based fluids seemed to achieve the best results for <a href="Coalbed_methane" title="Coalbed methane">coalbed methane</a> operations,<sup id="cite_ref-mader_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mader-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but as of 2012, slickwater treatments are more popular.

</p><p>Other than proppant, slickwater fracturing fluids are mostly water, generally 99% or more by volume, but gel-based fluids can see polymers and surfactants comprising as much as 7 vol%, ignoring other additives. Other common additives include <a href="Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> (low pH can <a href="Industrial_etching" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial etching">etch certain rocks</a>, dissolving <a href="Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> for instance), friction reducers, <a href="Guar_gum" title="Guar gum">guar gum</a>, <a href="Biocide" title="Biocide">biocides</a>, emulsion breakers, <a href="Emulsifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Emulsifier">emulsifiers</a>, <a href="2-butoxyethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="2-butoxyethanol">2-butoxyethanol</a>, and <a href="Radionuclides_associated_with_hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclides associated with hydraulic fracturing">radioactive tracer</a> isotopes.

</p><p>Proppants have greater permeability than small mesh proppants at low closure stresses, but will mechanically fail (i.e. get crushed) and produce very fine particulates ("fines") at high closure stresses such that smaller-mesh proppants overtake large-mesh proppants in permeability after a certain threshold stress.<sup id="cite_ref-carboceramics_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carboceramics-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Though <a href="Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> is a common proppant, untreated sand is prone to significant fines generation; fines generation is often measured in wt% of initial feed. One manufacturer has claimed untreated sand fines production to be 23.9% compared with 8.2% for lightweight ceramic and 0.5% for their product.<sup id="cite_ref-Momentive_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Momentive-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One way to maintain an ideal mesh size (i.e. permeability) while having sufficient strength is to choose proppants of sufficient strength; sand might be coated with resin, to form curable resin coated sand or pre-cured resin coated sands. In certain situations a different proppant material might be chosen altogether—popular alternatives include <a href="Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramics</a> and sintered <a href="Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proppant_weight_and_strength">Proppant weight and strength</h2></div>

<p>Increased strength often comes at a cost of increased density, which in turn demands higher flow rates, viscosities or pressures during fracturing, which translates to increased fracturing costs, both environmentally and economically.<sup id="cite_ref-rickards_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickards-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lightweight proppants conversely are designed to break the strength-density trend, or even afford greater gas permeability. Proppant geometry is also important; certain shapes or forms amplify stress on proppant particles making them especially vulnerable to crushing (a sharp discontinuity can classically allow infinite stresses in linear elastic materials).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proppant_deposition_and_post-treatment_behaviours">Proppant deposition and post-treatment behaviours</h2></div>

<p>Proppant mesh size also affects fracture length: proppants can be "bridged out" if the fracture width decreases to less than twice the size of the diameter of the proppant.<sup id="cite_ref-carboceramics_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carboceramics-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As proppants are deposited in a fracture, proppants can resist further fluid flow or the flow of other proppants, inhibiting further growth of the fracture. In addition, closure stresses (once external fluid pressure is released) may cause proppants to reorganise or "squeeze out" proppants, even if no fines are generated, resulting in smaller effective width of the fracture and decreased permeability. Some companies try to cause weak bonding at rest between proppant particles in order to prevent such reorganisation. The modelling of fluid dynamics and rheology of fracturing fluid and its carried proppants is a subject of active research by the industry.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proppant_costs">Proppant costs</h2></div>

<p>Though good proppant choice positively impacts output rate and overall ultimate recovery of a well, commercial proppants are also constrained by cost. Transport costs from supplier to site form a significant component of the cost of proppants.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_components_of_fracturing_fluids">Other components of fracturing fluids</h2></div>

<p>Other than proppant, slickwater fracturing fluids are mostly water, generally 99% or more by volume, but gel-based fluids can see polymers and surfactants comprising as much as 7 vol%, ignoring other additives.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other common additives include <a href="Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> (low pH can <a href="Industrial_etching" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial etching">etch certain rocks</a>, dissolving <a href="Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> for instance), friction reducers, <a href="Guar_gum" title="Guar gum">guar gum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Biocide" title="Biocide">biocides</a>, emulsion breakers, <a href="Emulsifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Emulsifier">emulsifiers</a>, and <a href="2-Butoxyethanol" title="2-Butoxyethanol">2-Butoxyethanol</a>.

</p><p><a href="Radionuclides_associated_with_hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Radionuclides associated with hydraulic fracturing">Radioactive tracer</a> isotopes are sometimes included in the hydrofracturing fluid to determine the injection profile and location of fractures created by hydraulic fracturing.<sup id="cite_ref-Reis_iodine_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reis_iodine-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patents describe in detail how several tracers are typically used in the same well. Wells are hydraulically fractured in different stages.<sup id="cite_ref-No5635712_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-No5635712-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tracers with different half-lives are used for each stage.<sup id="cite_ref-No5635712_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-No5635712-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-US5441110_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US5441110-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their half-lives range from 40.2 hours (<a href="Lanthanum-140" class="mw-redirect" title="Lanthanum-140">lanthanum-140</a>) to 5.27 years (<a href="Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-ep0340956a1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ep0340956a1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amounts per injection of radionuclide are listed in The US <a href="Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> (NRC) guidelines.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NRC guidelines also list a wide range of radioactive materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms that are used as field flood or enhanced oil and gas recovery study applications tracers used in single and multiple wells.<sup id="cite_ref-NRC_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRC-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the US, except for diesel-based additive fracturing fluids, noted by the American <a href="United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> to have a higher proportion of <a href="Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a> and carcinogenic <a href="BTEX" class="mw-redirect" title="BTEX">BTEX</a>, use of fracturing fluids in hydraulic fracturing operations was explicitly excluded from regulation under the American <a href="Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a> in 2005, a legislative move that has since attracted controversy for being the product of special interests lobbying.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_additives_for_hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="List of additives for hydraulic fracturing">List of additives for hydraulic fracturing</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_fracturing_and_radionuclides" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing and radionuclides">Hydraulic fracturing and radionuclides</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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